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Intergenerational trends in educational and income mobility in the United States of America since the 1960s

Concerns about widening inequality have increased attention on the topic of equality of opportunities and intergene... Show more
Concerns about widening inequality have increased attention on the topic of equality of opportunities and intergenerational mobility. We use data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to analyse how educational and income mobility has evolved in the United States of America. We show that since the 1980s the probability of moving from the bottom to the top of the education and income distribution (upward mobility) has increased. On the other hand, for children whose parents graduated from college, downward educational and income mobility has decreased. High parental income enables parents to insure against intergenerational income falling, generating a correlation between parents' and children's income. We conclude that American society, by increasing the number of university places, has created opportunities for students from low-income families to achieve higher educational attainments, which have pushed them out of the immobility trap. However, society has also developed an elite, which is wealthy and well educated. For those born to this elite, their family's status has a strong impact on their welfare and that of future generations.
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Authors: Ernst, Ekkehard; Langot, Francois; Merola, Rossana; Pulgarin, Jhon Jair Gonzales

Date: 2024

Geographic subjects: United States; North America

Resource type: Report, paper or authored book

Series name: ILO working paper

Subjects: Income; Labour market; Employment ... [+] Show more
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What is driving wealth inequality in the United States of America?: the role of productivity, taxation and skills

Out of four major structural changes affecting the US economy - namely a rising share of skilled workers, skill-bia... Show more
Out of four major structural changes affecting the US economy - namely a rising share of skilled workers, skill-biased technological change, decreasing progressiveness of taxation and productivity slowdown - we show that the decline in productivity growth not only is the main driver of the widening wealth disparities observed in the United States of America over the past few decades, but is also the only mechanism that can explain inequalities both within and between skill groups.
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Authors: Ernst, Ekkehard; Langot, Francois; Merola, Rossana; Tripier, Fabien

Date: 2024

Geographic subjects: United States; North America

Resource type: Report, paper or authored book

Series name: ILO working paper

Subjects: Skills and knowledge; Labour market; Income ... [+] Show more
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Employment and wage disparities between rural and urban areas

Statistical evidence from 58 countries shows that although people in rural areas are more likely to be in employmen... Show more
Statistical evidence from 58 countries shows that although people in rural areas are more likely to be in employment than those in urban ones, they also tend to have jobs that can put them at risk of experiencing inadequate labour protection as well as low pay. In particular, rural workers are paid, on average, 24 per cent less than their urban counterparts on an hourly basis, and only half of this gap can be explained by rural-urban discrepancies in education, job experience and occupational category. Developing countries exhibit a relatively wider gap, with the unexplained part also being larger. Furthermore, in many countries, certain groups of rural workers are at greater disadvantage, such as women, who, on average, appear to earn less than men in rural areas. However, institutional and regulatory frameworks, notably those that set minimum wages or seek to promote equal opportunities, can help to reduce labour market-related inequalities across the rural-urban divide.
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Authors: Ananian, Sevane; Dellaferrera, Giulia

Date: 2024

Resource type: Report, paper or authored book

Series name: ILO working paper

Subjects: Income; Employment; Disadvantaged ... [+] Show more
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Building better formal TVET systems: principles and practice in low- and middle-income countries

Reform of formal technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is urgently needed in most low- and middle-... Show more
Reform of formal technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is urgently needed in most low- and middle-income countries (L/MICs). Demographic trends, coupled with higher rates of students completing lower levels of education, can lead to an exponential increase in the number of secondary TVET students in the next 20 years, particularly in low-income countries. Yet, because of a broken link between TVET systems and labor markets in L/MICs, TVET cannot deliver on its promise. This report offers guidance to policymakers designing and implementing TVET reforms, emphasizing core principles and practical considerations for L/MICs. Getting TVET right is challenging but possible and the time for reform is now. Fortunately, there are many opportunities to leapfrog using new data and evidence, technology, and the lessons learned during the [Coronavirus Disease 2019] COVID-19 pandemic.
The report focuses on secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary formal TVET, defined as TVET obtained within the formal education system that leads to diplomas, degrees, or other formal certifications. The report has three parts. The first, 'The TVET promise', looks at the potential of TVET systems to deliver access to equitable, quality, and relevant training and contribute to employment and productivity in support of a sustainable economic transformation. The second, 'The TVET challenge', articulates the main observed challenges for L/MIC TVET systems. The last part, 'The way forward to better TVET', proposes three interrelated transformations (striving for 'excellence', focusing on 'end results', and making decisions based on 'evidence') and six policy priorities to help TVET deliver on its promise in L/MICs and discusses how these three transformations can be achieved and sustained.
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Authors: Levin, Victoria; Santos, Indhira; Weber, Michael; Iqbal, Syedah Aroob ... [+] Show more

Date: 2023

Resource type: Report, paper or authored book

Subjects: Vocational education and training; Policy; Governance ... [+] Show more
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Demand-side policies for employment promotion in low- and middle-income countries

Since March 2020, the [Coronavirus Disease 2019] COVID-19 crisis has deeply impacted labour markets around the worl... Show more
Since March 2020, the [Coronavirus Disease 2019] COVID-19 crisis has deeply impacted labour markets around the world, particularly in developing countries and among certain sectors and groups, such as women, youth and those in the informal economy. The labour market recovery was strong at the end of 2021 in high-income countries, while deficits persist in low- and middle-income economies. However, the shocks emanating from the Ukraine conflict has created a new global crisis that stems from inflation, especially in essentials, such as food and fuel, supply chain disruptions and debt sustainability challenges. This situation makes the imperative of creating decent and productive jobs more important than ever, especially as a key pillar of employment recovery strategies.
To support ILO constituents in this endeavour, it is critical that there is greater clarity on key concepts linked to demand-side policies and how they can support job creation in a developing-country context. In this regard, the design of such policies requires careful consideration of the specific constraints faced by low- and middle-income countries. This policy design should take into account not only the labour market, sectoral and financial structures and the external position of the economy, but also the long run development goals of the country. This paper contributes to developing these issues further through a literature review and an exposition of key concepts and definitions. The framework proposed will support the analysis of job creation measures within a broader employment policy context and further thinking on this critical area of policymaking in low- and middle-income countries.
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Authors: Aboobaker, Adam; Michell, Jo

Date: 2022

Resource type: Report, paper or authored book

Subjects: Policy; Employment; Labour market ... [+] Show more
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Youth labour market resilience during the COVID-19 crisis in three middle-income countries

Young people have been especially hard hit by the [Coronavirus Disease 2019] COVID-19 crisis. Despite support provi... Show more
Young people have been especially hard hit by the [Coronavirus Disease 2019] COVID-19 crisis. Despite support provided by governments, many young people had to rely on their individual capabilities and resources to adapt and react to these difficult times. This paper explores why some young people have been more resilient than others during the COVID-19 crisis. It relies on data from the unique Young Lives Study, based at the University of Oxford, which has followed the life trajectories of a generation of children - who are now young adults - for the past two decades. This generation of youth entered the labour market at the onset of the COVID-19 crisis. The analysis in this paper focuses on three middle-income countries - India, Peru and Viet Nam - and highlights common patterns of individual responses to the crisis.
The report finds that due to the particular characteristics of the COVID-19 crisis (with both demand and supply-side restrictions), individuals' pre-pandemic labour market characteristics (such as their economic status as an employee or own-account worker or the economic sector in which they worked) tended to correlate with the varying measures of work resilience. Generally, their education and skills characteristics had much less significant roles.
Excerpt from publisher's website. Show less

Authors: Chacaltana, Juan; Chang, Grace; Favara, Marta; McKay, Andy

Date: 2022

Geographic subjects: India; Vietnam; Asia ... [+] Show more

Resource type: Report, paper or authored book

Subjects: Youth; Gender; Equity ... [+] Show more
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Changing demand for skills in digital economies and societies: literature review and case studies from low- and middle-income countries

Digital transformation has already been bringing extraordinary economic dividends, efficiency and productivity gain... Show more
Digital transformation has already been bringing extraordinary economic dividends, efficiency and productivity gains in a wide range of sustainable development areas. It contributes to innovation in products, in processes, in work and organizational arrangements. As such, it holds the promise to substantially improve the job quality and productivity of existing jobs, as well as lives of workers. The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has accelerated the digital transformation and underscored the vital role that it plays in limiting disruptions to the world of work and in ensuring learning in times of crisis. Digital transformation not only means that some jobs will disappear, but also that the vast majority of the existing work tasks within traditional jobs will be modified. Many existing tasks will be complemented by technology. New skills will be demanded, including in hybrid jobs requiring the combination of digital skills and multidisciplinary training. The success of an individual on the labour market will, however, be determined by a good mix of hard technical skills specific to a job and sound basic skills as a foundation for further learning throughout life and strong core work - or soft - skills.
The report sheds light on changing demand for skills in digital economies and societies, based mostly on a literature review, supported by a set of case studies from low- and middle-income countries. It reviews different approaches to measuring digital skills, and discusses the impact of digitalization on skills and related policy recommendations. It shows that, while digitalization may vary widely in its extent and forms across countries and sectors, its impact on jobs and skills is nevertheless considerable everywhere. The report contributes to a better understanding of the key skills implications of the digitalization process and helps to address the fundamental challenge of how skills and lifelong learning systems should respond to the rapid pace of technological and structural change brought about by digitalization.
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Authors: Strietska-Ilina, Olga; Chun, Hae-Kyeung; Aleksynska, Mariya; Kriechel, Ben ... [+] Show more

Date: 2021

Geographic subjects: Argentina; Cambodia; Costa Rica ... [+] Show more Georgia (Republic)">Georgia (Republic); title="Search for Central America and the Caribbean">Central America and the Caribbean; America; America [-] Show less

Resource type: Report, paper or authored book

Subjects: Skills and knowledge; Technology; Employment ... [+] Show more
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Global wage report 2020-21: wages and minimum wages in the time of COVID-19

This report examines the evolution of real wages around the world, giving a unique picture of wage trends globally ... Show more
This report examines the evolution of real wages around the world, giving a unique picture of wage trends globally and by region. The 2020-21 edition analyses the relationship of minimum wages and inequality, as well as the wage impacts of the COVID-19 [Coronavirus Disease 2019] crisis. The 2020-21 edition also reviews minimum wage systems across the world and identifies the conditions under which minimum wages can reduce inequality. The report presents comprehensive data on levels of minimum wages, their effectiveness, and the number and characteristics of workers paid at or below the minimum. The report highlights how adequate minimum wages, statutory or negotiated, can play a key role in a human-centred recovery from the crisis.
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Corporate authors: International Labour Organisation (ILO)

Date: 2020

Resource type: Report, paper or authored book

Series name: ILO Global wage report

Subjects: Employment; Income; Policy ... [+] Show more
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The migrant pay gap: understanding wage differences between migrants and nationals

In many countries, men and women migrant workers represent a significant share of the workforce and contribute impo... Show more
In many countries, men and women migrant workers represent a significant share of the workforce and contribute importantly to societies and economies. According to the most recent ILO estimates, there are 164 million migrant workers worldwide, of whom close to half are women. Despite the positive migration experiences of many, migration is frequently associated with abusive practices and non-respect of fundamental rights at work. Migrant workers often face inequality of treatment in the labour market, including with respect to wages, access to employment and training, conditions of work, social security, and trade union rights. Moreover, recruitment fraud and abuse can cause migrant workers, especially low- and semi-skilled workers, to face high recruitment fees and related costs depleting their wages and savings. One way to measure inequalities between migrant workers and nationals is by comparing the earnings of migrant workers to that of non-migrant workers with similar labour market characteristics.
Based on recent data from 49 countries, this report analyzes differences in wages between migrant workers and nationals, providing a global overview of how migrant women and men fare in labour markets in low-, middle- and high-income countries. The report compares the labour market characteristics of migrants and nationals that contribute to their economic success and the migrant pay gap, with special attention to gender differences within and among these groups. Focusing on wage workers, it studies the raw and the factor-weighted migrant pay gaps, shedding light on the 'explained' and 'unexplained' parts of the raw migrant pay gap. In highlighting the persistent differences in wages between migrants and nationals, the report points to the urgency of implementing fair, evidence-based labour migration and labour market policies that contribute to more just societies, in line with the principles embodied in international labour standards.
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Authors: Amo-Agyei, Silas

Date: 2020

Geographic subjects: Albania; Argentina; Australia ... [+] Show more

Resource type: Report, paper or authored book

Subjects: Migration; Income; Employment ... [+] Show more
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Working on a warmer planet: the effect of heat stress on productivity and decent work

The phenomenon of heat stress refers to heat received in excess of that which the body can tolerate without physiol... Show more
The phenomenon of heat stress refers to heat received in excess of that which the body can tolerate without physiological impairment. It is one of the major consequences of global warming. In 2030, the equivalent of more than two per cent of total working hours worldwide is projected to be lost, either because it is too hot to work or because workers have to work at a slower pace. In its findings, this report shows the impact of heat stress on productivity and decent work for virtually all countries in the world. It also presents innovative solutions based on social dialogue to promote occupational safety and health for the most vulnerable groups of workers.
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Authors: Kjellstrom, Tord; Maitre, Nicolas; Saget, Catherine; Otto, Matthias ... [+] Show more

Date: 2019

Geographic subjects: Africa; North America; South America ... [+] Show more

Resource type: Report, paper or authored book

Subjects: Employment; Disadvantaged; Sustainability ... [+] Show more