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Purpose - This paper examines the way social class influences the relationship between business mentors and small business owner-managers. Design/methodology/approach - The paper is based on the author’s experience of mentoring businesses with The Prince’s Trust. Three businesses were selected as cases. The methodological approach involved participant-observation over an extended period of time. These observations were supplemented by semi-structured interviews. Findings - The paper focuses on Bourdieu’s concepts of habitus and cultural capital as key influences on the values and dispositions of owner-managers. The working class owner-managers in this study lacked a future orientation and as a result ‘lived for today’. They also had a fatalistic attitude to life arising from both their experience and an understanding of their ‘position’ in society. Low aspiration levels were also evident in the way the owner-managers in this study viewed ambition as ‘pretentious’ and ‘getting above oneself’. In addition, they resisted the idea of being ‘rational’ and preferred to utilise informal or ‘hot’ information. Practical implications - This paper concludes that professionals should resist adopting a ‘deficit model’ that automatically assumes the values of the mentor are superior to those of the owner-manager. In order to avoid this it is suggested that professionals should adopt a reflexive approach in their relationships with clients. Originality/value - It could be argued that other factors besides social class will influence the owner-manager/business mentor relationship and the way these businesses are run. However, a focus on social class was felt to be appropriate because of its neglect in small business research.

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Purpose - The paper aims to explore the changing influences and relevance of passive and experiential methods of learning within what can be described as a new era of entrepreneurial education. What still largely remains unaddressed in the literature is how are entrepreneurs best educated and developed in a manner which can have a direct impact on their personal and business development. Design/methodology/approach - The paper suggests that learning is action oriented, and that entrepreneurs are not merely 'doers'; they are 'practitioners'. An integral part of being a 'practitioner' is the use of practice to help move the firm beyond the 'adaptive' learning which takes place in naturally occurring non-contrived learning occasions. The paper is theoretical in its intent and adopts a social constructionist view of knowledge and learning. The research approach is informed by practitioner-based practice and research, education and participation as a process of social learning. Findings - The development of experiential knowledge in entrepreneurs is an incremental process that evolves throughout the course of their working lives. This means that attempts to stimulate 'real life' experience through formal modes of passive education and training are unlikely to have a strong influence or impact on the development of the entrepreneur as a practitioner. Practical implications - The paper sets out to develop an argument against the traditional 'passive' means of business education, by suggesting that entrepreneurs who are exposed to passive learning are spectators rather than active participators. Originality/value - The paper contributes to our current understanding of entrepreneurial learning by recognising that entrepreneurial learning in the context of higher education takes place beyond the domain of the classroom learning experiences, through experiential and discovery-based learning which questions traditional orthodox pedagogies. The paper illustrates how knowledge is constructed through a situated practice of knowing, and demonstrates how a practice-based perspective might be useful for the study of entrepreneurial education.

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Purpose – This paper seeks to discuss the challenges faced when trying to integrate entrepreneurship education in the training system, with a particular focus on vocational training. Design/methodology/approach – The data were collected through in-depth interviews, document reviews and focus group discussions. The respondents were drawn from [Vocational Education Training Authority] VETA headquarters – training director, centre managers, entrepreneurship instructors in the centre, and a section of final year students who were purposely selected. Other stakeholders in vocational training in Tanzania were also consulted. Findings – The findings were organized around key themes of the research as per the set objectives. The emerging views showed some of the following issues as the major challenges facing the authority in its effort to integrate entrepreneurship training in the programme: time too limited to cover the core subjects; Form iv leavers and standard vii trainees have different understanding levels; financial/budgetary constraint; few instructors with relevant skills; lack of role models of successful former trainees who are practising entrepreneurs; course too theoretical, lacking the component of field studies; and the course too boring compared with other mainstream courses. Research limitations/implications – The sample size was too small to be wholly reliable for generalizing the findings to a similar problem. However, the insights gained are a crucial basis for further research and give some variables to be investigated on their significance in shaping entrepreneurship training, especially in a developing country like Tanzania. Originality/value – The research provides knowledge that was lacking as far as entrepreneurship training and vocational training are involved. Other studies, especially in Tanzania, focused on the quality of technical training and the infrastructural resources rather than business-related skills.

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Purpose - To report on research that examines the impact of the adoption of nationally-recognised training by enterprises in Australia. Design/methodology/approach - The project involved a mix of methodologies including focus groups, employer survey and case studies. Findings - The research found that there had been a higher than expected adoption of nationally-recognised training by Australian enterprises in recent years and that enterprises were using training packages to support other human resource management activities apart from training. Research limitations/implications - The case studies were confined to four industry areas of hospitality, manufacturing, arts/media and call centres. Originality/value - This paper fills a significant gap in the research literature on the use that enterprises make of nationally-recognised training.

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Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the effectiveness of a mentor training intervention for experienced entrepreneurs in order to support and advise new and early stage female entrepreneurs in an attempt to enrich the limited literature of empirical data in the area of mentor training intervention assessment. Design/methodology/approach - For the evaluation of the mentor training programme, a three-level process has been used (reactions to training, knowledge and skills, behavior). Empirical research consists of quantitative research and different questionnaires were used to obtain information from respondents on a post basis. The sample consists of 52 mentors (experienced entrepreneurs) and 52 female mentees (early stage entrepreneurs). Descriptive statistics were generated by the analysis of quantitative and qualitative data. Findings - Mentors responded positively to the training, they acquired knowledge and improved their skills, and they were able to transfer their improved knowledge and skills to their mentoring relationship and to their personal and professional lives. Research limitations/implications - Findings are based on preliminary research and a more comprehensive evaluation could be devised using pre- and post-programme evaluation and resultant relationships could be further evaluated through a qualitative study. Practical implications - A mentor training intervention evaluation is needed to enhance delivery of mentoring functions tailored to the needs of female entrepreneurs. This study serves as a starting-point for further research in the field of female entrepreneurial learning and particularly mentor training to policy makers, academics and professionals. Originality/value - Although the literature on female entrepreneurship, mentoring and training is growing, very little has been done to assess mentor training interventions. The present paper is one of the first to address and explore this issue.

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Purpose - The aim of this article is to offer insight into the factors affecting individual and organisational learning in a small business; specifically the identification of the learning relationships that are unique to the small business environment. Design/methodology/approach - The authors apply Crossan et al.'s (1997, 1999) Organisational Learning Framework. The proposed framework is supported by empirical evidence generated through a longitudinal case study carried out in a small business in the Republic of Ireland over a two-year period. A learning catalyst, in this case the implementation of a new information system (IS), offered an initial point from which to gauge subsequent learning within the studied case. Findings - This framework acknowledges the learning impact of a small workforce, an owner-centred culture and a simple organisational structure, as well as the time and resource constraints specific to small businesses which affect the learning dynamic. The framework also takes account of the learning challenges brought about by external influences unique to a small business environment, such as enforced organisational change created by powerful business partners' commercial requirements. Research limitations/implications - As this framework was developed based on a single case, similar research may be conducted on additional case studies to determine the learning dynamic in alternative settings and business environments. Originality/value - This research presents some valuable insights into the ways in which organisational learning can be facilitated and impeded in the largely ignored small business environment.

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Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to examine the development of entrepreneurship education and training in Kenya as a strategic approach to addressing the unemployment problem among the school and university graduates in Kenya and Africa in general. Design/methodology/approach - The study adopted a critical review of the literature method to achieve its purpose and to answer the key research question. The literature search included a computerized search of accessible and available material on entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial spirit, entrepreneurship education and training programs, history of entrepreneurship, and entrepreneurship models, Africa and entrepreneurship development. Findings - It is shown that the development of entrepreneurial spirit and competencies should be a lifelong process. Addressing Africa’s socioeconomic development in an entrepreneurial way requires learning successful lessons from within and without Africa. Specific examples of successful use of entrepreneurship to develop micro, small and medium-sized enterprises in Africa and other parts of the world, especially the USA, are cited in the paper. A case study of using technology to promote entrepreneurship in Africa is provided. Research limitations/implications - The paper is limited since it is based on a review of the literature. Quantitative and qualitative research studies focusing on entrepreneurship and socioeconomic development in Africa are recommended. Originality/value - There are limited studies that focus on the issue of entrepreneurship and socioeconomic development in Africa. This paper and the special issue in particular have laid down pioneering ground work for research on entrepreneurship and socioeconomic development in Africa.

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Purpose - The aim of this article is to gain insight into some of the factors that determine personnel-training efforts in companies introducing advanced manufacturing technologies (AMTs). The study provides empirical evidence from a sector with high rates of technological modernisation. Design/methodology/approach - Ad hoc survey of 90 firms in the manufacturing sector with advanced manufacturing technologies in production processes. Findings - Managerial decision to develop training is determined by a factor that is extraneous to the investment in new production technologies, that is to say, recruitment policies. As for the existence of a specific training budget, implementation of AMTs does not appear to determine a company's decision to allocate specific budget items to personnel-training programmes. It is concluded that training policies are strongly influenced by factors outside the inner context of the organisation. Research limitations/implications - Similar research could be conducted on informal corporate training, working with additional variables to determine how they affect company training policies. The propositions were tested in a specific industry and area. Further research would be convenient in different regions and sectors. Originality/value - Contributes to the literature in human resources about the adaptation of human resources strategy to necessary changes in the workplace.

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Purpose - As part of the European continuing vocational training survey, this paper aims to give an overview of the evolutions in continuing vocational training (CVT) in Belgian companies, by comparing both the results of the survey of 1994 and those of 2000/2001. Design/methodology/approach - In Belgium 1,129 companies took part in the survey of 2000/2001. The sample was representative of Belgian companies with more than ten employees, making use of two criteria: company size and economic activity. The data were collected by telephone, post and face-to-face interviews based on a standardised questionnaire. Findings - The findings suggest that the Belgian companies increasingly invested in both formal and informal learning. The results concerning 'access to CVT courses' and 'efforts in financial terms' also show a positive evolution. Finally, the study reveals that the CVT-policy within companies has become more formal. Despite this positive tendency in general, not all employees seem to have the same opportunities to take part in CVT. The company size and, to a lesser extent, the activity of the company are two important determinants for the investment in CVT. Research limitations/implications - The study focused on the formal types of CVT; consequently, it gives only a partial outline of the training efforts in Belgian enterprises. Future research should also include the other forms of CVT. Furthermore, the data are taken from enterprises; as such, they do not enable us to take into account the individual heterogeneity. Practical implications - A two-track policy is required to stimulate both training and non-training enterprises to invest in their human resources. More specifically, the opportunities of on-the-job training and external CVT courses should be enhanced and it is recommended to examine which role the different providers can play. Originality/value - The CVT survey is a useful source of statistical information for monitoring continuing vocational training by both policy-makers and enterprises.

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Purpose - The purpose of this research is to show that a key aspect of learning and development of individual employees is that of self-directedness. This paper will consider the role of the leader in facilitating workforce development in terms of employees' self-directedness for learning. The research was designed to investigate the views that 'learning leaders' in organizations have towards the development of self-directedness in employees; and to identify strategies that are feasible in developing self-directedness in operating organizations. Design/methodology/approach - This paper draws on a national research project undertaken in 12 organizations in Australia, representing a range of sizes and a number of industry sectors. Data collection involved interviewing learning and development managers in each organization to gauge the relative feasibility of the implementation of a number of pre-identified strategies designed to develop self-directedness among employees within operating work environments. Findings - The research showed that: learning managers and leaders were generally well disposed towards the development of self-directedness, and some had already moved to do so; and identified a number of possible strategies for implementation of varying degrees of feasibility. The paper will consider these findings in relation to the concept of a 'learning leader'. Research limitations/implications - Although the research was conducted in a diverse set of 12 enterprises, applicability of the results across an even wider set of enterprises would need to be tested. Originality/value - The findings of this research provide guidance to learning and development personnel on feasible strategies to use within their own organization to assist with the development of self-directed learning among employees.

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