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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to identify and define dimensions of organizational learning and the way it affects small- or medium-size enterprise (SME) performance. Design/methodology/approach – The empirical research is carried out in Polish SMEs (the sample size is 211 enterprises). In order to test the constructed hypotheses we use factor analysis with varimax rotation, correlation analysis and cluster analysis. The sales and employment growth figures and synthetic McKenzie index are used to evaluate SME performance. Findings – In the empirical study, 11 empirical dimensions of organizational learning are identified and defined. The empirical research shows that sales and employment growth is most dependent on the following dimensions: dialogue and empowerment of the employees, collaboration, team learning, leaders' attitudes. In this research, it is suggested that there is an empirical relationship between organizational learning and organizational performance. In practice it means that organizations reaching a higher level of organizational learning probably achieve higher performance. Research limitations/implications – This research uses a single-respondent questionnaire. Further research could include analysis of other SME members and take into consideration subjective measures of SME development. Practical implications – The research results in some important recommendations for SME leaders, who should make every effort to inspire the employees' confidence in each other and create an atmosphere of honest and frank exchange of information and ideas. Originality/value – The results of the research fill a gap in the current knowledge of strategic management and can be used by managers, specialists, independent experts.

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Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to develop a theoretical framework for measuring public sector managers' career success. Design/methodology/approach - The theoretical foundation used in this study is social cognitive career theory. To conduct a literature search, several keywords were identified, i.e. career success, objective and subjective career success, managers, managerial career development and social cognitive career theory. Several electronic databases available in the university's library, such as Emerald, EBSCOHost, SAGE, Science Direct and Blackwell Synergy, were used to search for resources. Literature includes sources written in both English and Malay. Findings - The four factors that have predictive potential on managers' career success are individual-related factors, organizational-related factors, managerial competencies-related factors, and the person-environment fit factor. Career success should be operationalized using both objective and subjective career success. Research limitations/implications - The study was exploratory, based on a literature review. Empirical study is needed to examine the predictive potential of the four key factors (i.e. individual-related factors, organizational-related factors, managerial competencies-related factors, and person-environment fit factor) for public sector managers' career success. Practical implications - Strengthening the [human resource development] HRD framework through organizational development, personnel training and development and career development may develop and unleash individual potential which leads to positive career outcomes (objective and subjective career success). Originality/value - The research constructs a theoretical framework which outlines the predictive potential of four key factors on public sector managers' career success. The four key factors can be developed through HRD practices.

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Purpose - This paper attempts to shed light on the effect of educational programmes aimed at entrepreneurs on innovation and business success. Design/methodology/approach - We use as theoretical framework the theory of planned behaviour. We use a sample of 354 entrepreneurs from Castile and Leon, Spain. To estimate the model we use a path analysis (AMOS 7). Findings - Individuals who are concerned about further management education and entrepreneurship education show themselves to be more innovative. Moreover, indirectly, by means of the relationship between innovation and success, specific entrepreneurship education contributes to obtaining better business results. However, to have reached high levels of formal education makes entrepreneurs less conformist regarding the activity of innovation. The existence of a direct effect of innovative behaviour on business success is confirmed. Research limitations - The limitations which our study presents are principally related to the measurement of the variables. Some of the characteristics of education should be studied more deeply. Practical implications - The results obtained lead us to recommend that the educational centres and institutions which organise the programmes should give preference to specialised education and less to entrepreneurship education when seeking to reinforce the innovative spirit of the entrepreneurs. Originality/value - The debate concerning the effectiveness of entrepreneurship educational programmes is still undecided, so much so that both supporters and detractors of entrepreneurship education exist. For that reason, this paper aims to shed some light on the effects of the educational programmes aimed at the entrepreneur.

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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to argue that both the supply-based model and the demand-based form of vocational education and training (VET) have their limitations and propose a 'third way' in which reflective learning in the workplace is a central ingredient. Design/methodology/approach – The data was collected from several studies of VET programmes in Sweden based on individual and group interviews, a survey and continuous participation in developmental work. The paper uses an interactive research approach in the research design. Findings – The paper proposes a 'third way' that tries to overcome the deficiencies of both the supply- and demand-based strategies for VET by developing a more equal balance in the relationship between the education and workplace systems. Collaboration and partnership between education providers and progressive workplaces are core elements. Research limitations/implications – The paper tries to connect activities and changes at the organisational, inter-organisational and institutional levels of the VET system. It is argued that changes at different levels are strongly interconnected and necessary to an understanding of the prerequisites for workplace learning. These vertical relationships form the main focus of future research. Practical implications – It is argued that changes in the VET system should be initiated using a 'bottom up' approach, start at the local level, and include change at all levels. The 'bottom up' approach should include a combined employer, employee and service-user perspective. It requires that learning issues are solved in a partnership that represents both the supply side of education and the demand side of working life. Originality/value – Inter-organisational relations need to be based on equal, mutual and trustful relationships between the education and workplace systems in order to support a sustainable change process.

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Purpose – Though the notion of competence is common terminology in European [vocational education and training] VET policy at national and supra-national level, understandings vary widely, both across countries and within. The particular conceptions of competence adopted in the [European Qualifications Framework] EQF are themselves problematic and the framework allows for a variety of interpretations. The purpose of this paper is to clarify those applied in the EQF and the vocational education and qualifications systems of particular European countries and to contribute to the development of a transnational understanding of the term, one which is compatible with a rapidly changing labour market. Design/methodology/approach – Drawing on evidence from work funded by the Nuffield Foundation entitled 'Cross-national Equivalence of Vocational Skills and Qualifications', the paper explores the various conceptions of competence in the EQF and the national systems – in particular in the sectors of construction, ICT and health – of England, Germany, France and The Netherlands. Findings – Interpretations are located on a continuum from the comprehensive occupational model traditionally found in many European countries to the task-focused model of the English NVQ system. Research limitations/implications – Much developmental work involving all stakeholders is necessary to arrive at a commonly agreed conception. A broad understanding of competence would relate to the potential of labour, itself determined through the occupational capacity embodied in the qualification. Practical implications – Zones of Mutual Trust need to be based on transnational categories of VET. Originality/value – The value of the paper is in seeking to go beyond identifying differences by developing transnational categories and suggesting the nature of Zones of Mutual Trust for implementing the EQF.

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Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to look at the issues concerning barriers that managers face in relation to participation in training and transfer of training, which have become increasingly important to [human resource development] HRD scholars and practitioners. To date, these areas have largely been examined independently. This paper aims to argue that there is an increasing need to understand and explore these two areas in unison. Design/methodology/approach - Although this paper is primarily conceptual in nature, in order to investigate a model derived from relevant literature, survey data from 137 Canadian employees, mostly from the broader public sector, was examined. These respondents completed a short transfer of training questionnaire three months after a one-day managerial training programme. In this study, open-ended questions investigating training barriers are analysed. Findings - The exploratory examination of information from participants of a managerial training programme suggests that the model which links literature on participation in training and transfer of training warrants additional examination. Most significantly, there was substantial overlap between the participation and transfer barriers with the most common barriers being linked to 'lack of time' and 'unsupportive culture'. Research limitations/implications - The main limitation of this paper is the relatively small sample size with regard to data concerning barriers to transfer. However, the authors feel that a key implication is that a 'bridge of understanding' is created concerning the numerous factors that impact participation in training, transfer of training and the relationships between them. Hence, HRD practitioners and scholars can now use this model to begin to understand how they might improve the overall quality of training programmes and to further explore the relationship between transfer and participation. Originality/value - The conceptual model developed further integrates the respective literatures pertaining to management training participation and transfer of learning in the workplace. The proposed model shows how barriers to participation can become barriers to transfer and how barriers to transfer from one programme may become barriers to participation to subsequent learning activities.

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Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to report the results of an empirical study of the meaning of working, individual level work outcomes, and job and career satisfaction, among professional level employees in business organizations in Russia, Poland, and Germany. Design/methodology/approach - The theoretical framework for the study was based on the work by England and colleagues. The sample (n=638) included professional level employees in the medium and large manufacturing and service organizations in the three countries. Correlations, discriminant function analysis, and multiple regressions were used to answer research questions regarding the relationship between the study variables and to determine country differences. Findings - Results indicate different patterns and levels of work centrality, desired work outcomes, work role identification, and job and career satisfaction among the three countries. A significant difference was found between work values in Russia, on the one hand, and Germany and Poland, on the other. Gender differences in meaning of work patterns were found among Russian respondents. Job and career satisfaction was related to different combinations of demographic and work meaning variables. Practical implications - For human resource development (HRD) and training and development (T&D) professionals working in multinational companies and/or with customers/suppliers in these three countries, the findings imply the need to take into account the similarities and differences in individual meaning of working variables when designing and implementing organization development and training interventions. Originality/value - Despite the central role of working for individuals and the central role of the work values construct for the professional fields of training and HRD, research on meaning of working has been sparse in the academic literature. Thus, the study can contribute to a fuller understanding of experience of work and its implications for the theory and practice of training and human resource development.

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Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to examine the factors that drive a firm's decision to invest in training in India's IT-enabled services/business process outsourcing (ITeS/BPO) sector. It aims to consider a much-neglected area and an often-cited need to consider external factors, especially the needs of an organisation's clients in a firm's decision to train. Design/methodology/approach - The paper employs case study research strategy using semi-structured interviews, organisational documents and non-participant observation. Findings - Employee turnover, competitive strategy, client specifications and quality management systems were important factors in shaping the nature and extent of training. The temporal dimension of the process was also significant in influencing volume of training. The study also found that learning and development were inextricably intertwined with its operations management, as against a firm's HR infrastructure. Originality/value - As most HRD research adopts an inward-looking approach, the study offers fresh insights by adopting an outward-looking approach and considers the impact of an organisation's clients on provision of training. The study's distinctive contributions are in identifying the influence that client specifications, employee turnover, temporal and geographical dimension of processes have on provision of training and, in analysing the critical and unexplored link between a firm's market orientation, learning orientation, and quality management systems, in shaping the nature and extent of training provision. This research extends the current theory-building debates and provides insights for practitioners and education policy makers about training decision making in ITeS/BPO firms.

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Purpose - This study aims to identify managerial competencies required for successful middle managers in China. Design/methodology/approach - First a questionnaire survey was distributed among MBA and EMBA students at a major university in China, and then two case studies were conducted to collect more in-depth data. Findings - The findings of this study suggest that team building, communication, coordination, execution and continual learning are critical competencies for the success of middle managers in China. Implications for future research and practices are also discussed. Originality/value - The literature review shows that although previous leadership competency studies are extensive, little research has been conducted to explore the competencies required for middle managers. This study would contribute to fill the gap in the literature.

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Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to investigate the potential of already existing skills and competence ontologies to benefit European transparency tools and especially the implementation of the European Qualification Framework [EQF]. Furthermore, it asks whether any of them could serve as a starting point to develop an International Standard Classification of Skills and Competences to supplement [International Standard Classification of Education] ISCED and [International Standard Classification of Occupations] ISCO. Design/methodology/approach - This contribution contains a comparative analyses of three systems providing ontologies of skills and competences - DISCO, O*NET and Taxonomy_DB - under terminological and pragmatic aspects. Findings - The analysis identifies O*NET as the most promising candidate to serve European transparency instruments and the EQF. Furthermore, it demonstrates that the development of an International Standard Classification of Skills and Competences, that is suitable for statistical purposes as well as appropriate for practical applications in human resource management and in the area of education, would have to integrate very diverging demands, which so far are being best met by O*NET and DISCO.

Research/limitations/implications - The depth of the analysis is not sufficient to serve as an exhaustive guideline to design an International Standard Classification of Skills and Competences. Practical implications - The paper shows the potential of a future International Standard Classification of Skills and Competences for the EQF, for European transparency tools, and for statistical purposes. Originality/value - This article brings a new topic, namely ontologies for skills and competences, into the European debate about competences and their visibility and validation.

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