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Raising the skill levels of the UK economy depends to some extent on individuals being prepared to invest in their own skill development, as well as expressing to employers and others their demand for formal and informal training. The chances of an individual actively seeking to increase their skills level depends, research suggests, on a number of 'intrinsic' and 'extrinsic' factors. People with few qualifications, those who are not employed or who work in smaller or non-unionised workplaces tend to be less likely than others to engage in, or demand, skills development. Research highlights a number of barriers to the take-up of skills development that are experienced by different groups of people. These include financial constraints; limited access to information, advice or guidance; negative influence from family or peers and in some cases negative early experiences of education or training. For those in work, the attitudes and practices of their employers can play an important role in stimulating or inhibiting skills development.

This paper outlines a broad policy framework around which initiatives designed to increase individual investment in skills development might be built and be particularly targeted at those least likely to participate in skills development. For those with limited experience of skills development, focused support coupled with flexible provision and appropriate financial incentives appear to be the most fruitful way forward. For people who are in work, a combination of workplace advocacy (in the form of Union Learning Representatives or similar) and employer willingness to provide at least part of the time or resources required should lead to a significant increase in individual demand for skills development. Underpinning these policy initiatives there is also a need for something more: a pervasive culture of learning which means that people from across all sections of UK society see learning as an ongoing part of their lives, rather than something that ends with compulsory education.

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Policy makers have introduced a number of measures to encourage older workers to stay in the labour market, with improving access to training a particular priority. Policy action appeared justified by evidence that older workers are less likely to participate in training, and more likely to have never been offered training by employers - a key finding of Taylor and Urwin's (2001) review of Labour Force Survey (LFS) data from 1997. This article models LFS data from 2007 to assess whether age remained a predictor of inequalities in training. It finds that men over 50 remained among those least likely to have been offered training by employers. There were other significant inequalities in participation, suggesting a polarization in access to jobs that offer opportunities for training and progression. The article concludes that policies promoting 'active ageing' need to challenge negative employer attitudes and acknowledge fundamental inequalities in access to skills.

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This report presents the results of a detailed review of evidence and policy relating to the factors that influence the engagement of the individual in skills development. It incorporates a broad range of formal and informal learning activities, delivered in a range of institutional settings and through different media, including work-based, classroom-based, distance learning and community-based learning. The review is deliberately broad in its focus, drawing on evidence and policy relating to people in different positions within the labour market, in or out of work, new entrants into employment, younger and older workers, and people with and without qualifications and/or with higher and lower skills. However, a key focus for the research were the barriers and factors affecting access to skills development opportunities among lower skilled and lower qualified people. The evidence review comprised an overview of the available statistical data for the UK and, where available, constituent countries, and a review of studies that have examined the factors that appear to influence the individual's decision as to whether to undertake skills development activities. Building on this evidence review, the research team brought together the findings of studies that have evaluated the impact on individual participation in skills development of a range of policies that have been implemented in the UK and/or constituent countries from 1998 onwards. A limited international policy review was also undertaken, focused on six countries identified in consultation with expert commentators.

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The Employee Demand study (UKCES, 2009) highlighted the significant barriers to learning that are faced by a number of UK employees. This report sets out the findings of a study into the motivators and barriers to participation in workplace learning by low skilled employees. Employees in low skilled jobs are a group which has been overlooked in previous research. The study was carried out by the Employment Research Institute (ERI) at Edinburgh Napier University on behalf of the UK Commission for Employment and Skills. The report presents the results of a survey of both employee and employer views on participation in workplace learning in the care sector in north east England and the hotel sector in Yorkshire and Humberside. As well as a standard survey, the report also outlines the stated preference approach adopted. The stated preference approach allows employees to consider a hypothetical case of participation in workplace learning. Employees were given choices of combinations of job and learning related factors that might affect their preference for or against workplace learning. In conclusion, the report suggests many positive features which employers, individuals and policy makers could build on in developing the skills of people in low skilled jobs, which is important in securing competitive advantage for the UK in the long term.

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This article explores the characteristics, destinations and progression routes of early school leavers - specifically 'exceptional entry winter leavers' - in Scotland. Exceptional entry allows students to enter college in the term before their statutory school leaving date - such young people attend college while formally remaining the responsibility of their school. Such arrangements represent an innovative model of supporting transitions to further education among a specific, potentially vulnerable client group, while also offering lessons for the development of school-college collaboration in other areas. Based on an analysis of official data, new survey research with schools and colleges, and in-depth case studies, this article identifies how schools and colleges work in partnership to support these early school leavers. We find that schools and colleges have developed a range of innovative approaches to engaging with winter leavers, and that the majority complete their programmes or achieve other positive end-of-year outcomes. However, the most disadvantaged young people remain least likely to progress. The article concludes by identifying lessons for good practice in school-college partnership-working and considering implications for policies to prevent young people from finding themselves not in employment, education or training.

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