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The transfer of the German vocational education and training (VET) system to other countries has been the topic of discussion and controversy. The present study focuses on the vocational and training behaviours of German corporations at their subsidiaries in the USA, China and India. Although all three countries are important markets for Germany, they are characterized by very different cultures, VET systems, and employment systems. In this study, [the authors] rely on interviews with local training experts of German subsidiaries to analyse VET activities. [The authors'] analysis is based on convergence (standardisation) versus divergence (localisation) theory borrowed from approaches in international management studies.

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Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to address a gap in the comparative research literature on vocational education and training (VET) and skill formation systems. It examines the impact of international technical standardisation and regulation on the design, organisation and delivery of apprenticeships in the aeronautical and aerospace sectors in England and Germany. Design/methodology/approach: The research design was informed by insights from economics, workplace and work-based learning and comparative education. Academic experts in the fields of aerospace and aeronautical standardisation and regulation, VET, human resource development and business organisation were consulted. The generic occupation of 'aircraft mechanic' was selected as being the closest match for comparison. Interviews and non-participant observation in workplaces and training centres were carried out involving three companies in England and four in Germany.

Findings: Findings show that there is considerable convergence across the pedagogical approaches to apprenticeships in England and Germany related to fostering the capacity to take responsibility for the quality of one's work, to work in and lead teams, and to respond to and work with customers. Increasing international regulation and technical standardisation underpins a shared language about learning through practice in technologically advanced workplaces. Originality/value: This paper is original because it turns the lens of inquiry to workplace processes to reveal the level of convergence in training philosophies and practices in an internationally highly regulated sector. It shows how international technical standardisation and regulation is leading to pedagogical innovation. The findings have implications for VET and apprenticeship policy at the national and international level.

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The quality of vocational education and training (VET) processes plays an important role in international education policies and research. In India, issues of quality came into focus in recent years due to an increased demand for skilled workers, and continuing challenges in the area of quality of VET. Existing quality assurance mechanisms of VET in India are characterised by a lack of comprehensiveness and uniform standards. This paper addresses the contextualised development of an Indian-specific approach for quality measurement. It centres on the following research question: Which quality areas, criteria and related indicators are of relevance for measuring quality comprehensively? The actual results will be a basis for a pilot-based implementation in India. The model can provide meaningful feedback and data-based recommendations for continuous improvement of the Indian VET system and may furthermore provide for a reflected and contextually adapted implementation in other countries.

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International comparative research on Vocational Education and Training (VET) is gaining importance, as global cooperation and mutual learning in VET grows. However, it is characterized by a high degree of complexity, due on one hand, to the heterogeneity of the VET sector, and on the other hand to the unique challenges of international comparisons. In addition, comparative research projects are increasingly conducted in the form of cross-border collaborations, which have their own particular organizational and methodological considerations, opportunities, and challenges. This paper presents an example of a cooperative research process, aimed at investigating the complex phenomenon of the competence-based approach in Russian and Chinese VET. In providing an example of developing an instrument for curriculum analysis and comparison, we discuss and reflect on the methodological and organizational peculiarities and challenges of the research process conducted collaboratively by an international team. The result of this process was the development of an analysis instrument which, on the one hand, is well-adapted to each national context and, on the other hand, allows a comparison of results along the same dimensions of analysis, in our case, elements of the competence-based approach in curriculum.

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The issue of modularising vocational education and training (VET) systems has been the subject of heated debate in many European countries. In particular, in Scotland the use of modules within the curriculum has been seen as either restrictive or liberating depending upon the theoretical stance taken. At a more pragmatic level modularisation of VET has been regarded as one facet of a broader strategy to modernise training systems. Indeed, a strategy that has resulted in significant changes at the system level in VET, with a consequent impact at the institutional and practitioner levels. These discussions on modularisation have been on going in Scotland since the mid-1980s and are still of relevance today. However, rather interestingly this initial enthusiasm in Scotland for modular approaches has waned slightly and been replaced by a degree of scepticism.

The work of Professor David Raffe and his colleagues at Edinburgh University has been instrumental in shaping the debate about modularisation. In particular, the conceptual contribution based upon the notion of 'institutional and intrinsic logic' and 'institutional diversity' has been very helpful. David acted as an advisor to our modularisation project with CEDEFOP and repeatedly reminded us of the need to collect data on implementation studies, with a particular comparative focus. This article will do just that, building upon a distinctive theoretical framework we will explore how modularisation has impacted on the work-based Scottish VET curriculum. Fortunately, we have substantial data on this based upon the example of a 'mature' VET system that has a long history of using modular based curriculum. Our findings will illustrate how modular structures can work towards both an expansive and restrictive notion of learning and assessment.

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This article is part of a special issue entitled 'Bridging divides: social science, educational policy and the improvement of education and training systems: an appreciation the contribution of David Raffe (1950-2015)', guest edited by Cathy Howieson, Ken Spours and Michael Young. Show less

Context: Vocational training is viewed as a significant tool that increases employment outcomes and provides potential career advancement opportunities for individuals. Many countries are witnessing a shift from supply-driven to demand-driven approaches. The demand-driven approach in vocational training is often explored at the macro level and is associated with the perspectives of employers and labour markets. In contrast, this article explores the demand-driven approach at the micro level by focusing on the perspectives of individual learners within the context of their localities in order to position them at the centre of the skill development process.

Methods: This study used a qualitative exploratory research method and a mixture of focus group and face-to-face semi-structured interviews to obtain data to identify the practical problems that arise in real life contexts when attempts are made to prioritise vocational training demands in line with the needs of all the stakeholders. Based on the demand from the targeted learners, a competency-based vocational training course especially for women was designed, tested and evaluated in selected villages.

Findings: The results show clearly that the demands of the rural population varied, and their participation in the training course was highly influenced by access to a training centre, the duration of the training, economic returns and socio-cultural factors. The demand-driven approach works best in vocational training when it involves the relevant stakeholders and the target groups in the planning and designing process.

Conclusion: The findings illustrate that demand-driven approach should be context specific, responsive to individuals’/learners’ demands, relevant and flexible.

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Purpose: This paper aims to investigate the in-company training according to the technologically demanding and safety-critical feature of the aircraft industry. This study addresses to the tension between the structured and the more incidental part of in-company learning in their training and learning environment. Design/methodology/approach: Against the background of concepts of workplace learning from vocational training research and concepts of the safety management system from safety research, aircraft companies from England and Germany were visited. Data from interviews with training managers and trainees as well as non-participant observations are analysed.

Findings: The findings show that workplace vocational learning in this industry is guided by different measures to design the learning environment to prevent purely incidental and informal knowledge acquisition. However, the formalisation of informal learning process leads to a high expenditure of material, personnel and time resources. The findings show that trainers and training managers working together internationally creatively manage different training systems. The training activities are designed to convey the values of safety culture like responsibility, accuracy, transparent communication and reporting. The requirements of the safety management system are also met through the training. Research limitations/implications: Challenges and tensions in the actual implementation of the training activities could not be identified. The people interviewed were selected by the companies, so there is a risk that certain perceptions are over-represented.

Practical implications: The results show that the safety-critical industry needs its own pedagogical approach to workplace learning, which is not based on independent work processes in the workplace. Insights can be drawn for in-company training in other safety-critical industries too. However, to enable effective in-company learning, which at the same time strengthens the safety culture of the company, many resources must be used. The companies must consider all dimensions of work from the individual level to the work structure level. Originality/value: This paper discusses the tension between formal and informal learning and shows the specific design of this tension on the basis of a concrete industry for the specific needs of this industry. The results lead to the realisation that the general discussion about workplace learning must be viewed in a differentiated way depending on the industry.

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This article addresses policy transfer in international development activities in vocational education and training. Ownership has been identified and established as a key factor for sustainability of transfer activities in different fields of development cooperation. While the concept has been targeted from a macro-level perspective of government-to-government transfer for a long time, meso- and micro-level perspectives of multi-stakeholder involvement are increasingly emerging. Thus, the focus is on the function of ownership in terms of the role of local stakeholder commitment for sustainable transfer at the level of vocational training institutions in India. Using the example of the transfer of an approach for quality measurement, factors, potentials and challenges for ownership development are explored. Findings are based on the first evaluation cycle of a quality measurement framework developed with specific regard to Polytechnic Colleges and Industrial Training Institutes [ITIs]. Results of the evaluation were analysed considering the model intentions and theoretically based assumptions taken in the research process. Ownership at the meso-level can be established by high degrees of acceptability of measures, participation of stakeholders at the institutional level and internal and external moderation processes in implementation. This paper argues that increased participation and decision-making authority will contribute to measures in line with stakeholders' needs and enable Polytechnic Colleges and ITIs to engage in institutional development more effectively when considering stakeholders' views. This is the case, particularly when focusing on quality assurance and development at the organisational level.

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Modularisation of vocational training courses is a major issue across many European countries. Germany has been slow to implement modularisation in its [vocational education and training] VET system: the prevailing view of modular concepts in the country is one of great scepticism, but there is very little empirical data to inform the debate. This exploratory study focuses on the relationship between the regulatory goals that underpin the introduction of modular VET systems and the implementation in practice of two VET programmes (elective skills and training building blocks). Our analysis includes official descriptions of training programmes, research papers, evaluation reports and policy papers. We also conducted a total of 12 interviews with experts at policy level and 25 interviews with practitioners. The findings indicate that Germany's approach to implementing modularisation is a hybrid, rather than a radical, approach in which differing degrees of emphasis are evident. The hypothesised goals of flexibilisation and specialisation are broadly achieved, but the goal of individualisation is only partially achieved. In this respect, certification and recognition of modules seem to be the greatest challenges.

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Purpose: India's Polytechnics are a fundamental part of its (vocational) education and training system but are largely ignored in VET research. Understanding the status quo and potential of India’s (vocational) education landscape requires an understanding of the role played by the Polytechnics, particularly in view of the Indian government's major efforts to implement a functioning VET system. Because little is known about the function and embeddedness of the Polytechnics the article therefore aims to examine how polytechnics are embedded in the Indian education and training system and what functions they perform for the actors within the system. Methods: The article begins by describing the systemic embeddedness of Polytechnics in the Indian education system and demonstrates their role and function in relation to a range of stakeholder groups (individuals, employers, society and the economy). Problem-centred face-to-face interviews were conducted with the principals of 14 Polytechnics in Bangalore, Delhi and Mumbai, among other cities. Semi-standardized interview guidelines were used to conduct the interviews. The interviews were analyzed by qualitative content analysis.

Results: The results show that polytechnics perform various functions in the Indian education system. The Polytechnics teach both theoretical and practical skills, which is a special feature of the Indian system at this level. Qualification takes place at an intermediate level, which means that graduates have the opportunity to enter a company after graduation, where they can hold a kind of supervisor position. It is precisely these employees that are increasingly being sought by Indian companies. In addition, polytechnics provide a pathway to higher education, so students can use the opportunity to switch to a college once they have their diploma at the Polytechnic. Furthermore, the Polytechnics offers its graduates a good opportunity to become self-employed through the wide range of specializations and the practice-oriented skill development. In addition, the Polytechnics offer numerous opportunities to promote socially disadvantaged groups. Conclusion: The survey findings illustrate the importance of Polytechnics to the various stakeholder groups, demonstrating their 'multidimensional bridging function' within the Indian education and training system.

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