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This conference paper focuses on training provided by firms. Many empirical studies demonstrate considerable variation across countries and across socio-economic groups in training participation rates, with Nordic countries showing higher participation than Southern European countries, and low-educated and older workers generally participating less than other groups in training activities. To investigate the reasons for this situation, the authors examine both the theoretical underpinnings and the empirical evidence in support of the under-provision of training. Under-provision is used to denote when 'training is below its efficient level, which equalises marginal social benefits to marginal social costs'. The authors argue that, if firms invest in general training, important evidence on under-provision can be gathered by examining the relationship between investment in training and labour turnover. They find evidence of a 'statistically significant and positive relationship between employer-provided training and subsequent turnover' for Denmark, Belgium, France and the UK. In the remaining countries the relationship is either not statistically significant or negative and statistically significant, as in the case of Finland. The evidence that, in no country except Finland, training significantly decreases the quit rate is suggestive of under-provision. The authors suggest that policies which aim at increasing the level of training above the market level should be designed to affect either supply or demand, or both.

Selected papers from the conference are indexed from TD/TNC 87.81 to TD/TNC 87.84. Show less

This [conference] paper provides a tentative review of the literature that estimates wage returns to training. It discusses both the measurement and estimation issues. The fundamental problem concerning the recovery of the causal effect of training on earnings lies in the correction for selectivity into training. The discussion of the empirical literature emphasises the size of the estimated returns; something which has been largely neglected in the literature. It is argued that traditional studies that depend on differencing (fixed effect) methods where non-participants are used as a comparison group results in high return estimates. On the basis of these high returns, some have argued that there is substantial under-investment and therefore scope for public intervention. Such under-investment could arise because of, for example, hold-up or liquidity constraints. The paper then shows that studies which exploit arguably exogenous variation in training participation find much smaller wage effects of training. The evidence collected in this paper calls into question the case for under-investment based on return studies. There is other evidence which suggests that under-investment may be less severe than previously believed. First, recent literature in experimental economics shows that individuals are often motivated by reciprocity and fairness considerations which are typically ignored in standard human capital models, while reciprocity can alleviate under-investment. Second, recent literature emphasising market imperfections also shows that imperfections may give employers more incentives than previously thought to invest in the general training of their employees. The paper concludes by calling for further study of training mechanisms and subsequent outcomes. Some potential avenues for research in this area are given.

Published abstract.

Selected papers from the conference are indexed from TD/TNC 87.81 to TD/TNC 87.84. Show less

This document explains how the [European Union] EU and its partners are improving vocational education and training (VET) to make them relevant to current and future labour markets. Work-based learning, access to VET, ongoing training for teachers and recognition of skills and qualifications are expected to help drive jobs and growth. The New Skills Agenda for Europe and the Riga Conclusions lay the foundations for this process. Progress in achieving the goals set out will be monitored by CEDEFOP and the [European Training Foundation] ETF.

The key deliverables outlined in the document are: (1) promote work-based learning in all its forms, with a special focus on apprenticeships, by involving social partners, companies, chambers and VET providers, and by stimulating innovation and entrepreneurship; (2) further develop quality assurance mechanisms in VET in line with the [European Quality Assurance in Vocational Education and Training] EQAVET Recommendation and, as part of quality assurance systems, establish continuous information and feedback loops in [initial] I-VET and [continuing] C-VET systems based on learning outcomes; (3) improve access to VET and qualifications for everyone through more flexible and open systems, notably by offering efficient and comprehensive guidance services and validating nonformal and informal learning; (4) provide an added boost to key competences in VET curricula and offer more effective opportunities to acquire or develop these skills through I-VET and C-VET; and (5) introduce systematic approaches to, and opportunities for, initial and continual professional development of VET teachers, trainers and mentors in both education and work-based settings.

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The Joint Employment Report (JER) is a key input to EU economic governance, providing an annual overview of key employment and social developments in Europe as well as Member States' reform actions in line with the Guidelines for the Employment Policies of the Member States and Annual Growth Survey (AGS) priorities. Key indications are that: (1) the economic expansion, which now has reached all Member States, is accompanied by steady improvements in the labour market and social situation supported by the reform efforts made by Member States; (2) job creation has picked up and employment continues to expand at a firm pace; (3) the main labour market indicators have strengthened across the board; (4) while all Member States show improvements, very substantial differences can be observed; (5) underutilisation of the labour force is falling but remains sizeable even in countries where unemployment is low; (6) despite the improvements in the labour market, wage growth remains subdued in most countries; (7) several Member States have taken steps to enhance the predictability of the wage setting system, with the involvement of social partners; (8) in line with the labour market upturn there is a general improvement in the financial situation of households; (9) increasing labour market participation, employment rates, and productivity is an imperative in view of demographic change; (10) recent gains in employment have not been evenly distributed among different population groups; (11) while the employment rate of women reached another record high, they continue to be underrepresented in the labour market and face a significant pay differential; (12) in addition, more part-time work combined with shorter and more discontinuous careers often translates into lower pensions for women.

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Based on an assessment of progress made in key policy areas in the last three years, this draft Joint Report proposes new working priorities for the period 2012-2014 geared to mobilise education and training to support Europe 2020. The draft Joint Report also sets out a number of options to adjust the governance of ET 2020 to ensure that it contributes to Europe 2020. The Communication is underpinned by two Staff Working Documents. They take stock of the situation in individual countries and key thematic areas and draw on National Reports provided by Member States as well as other information and data.

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In November 2002, the Education Ministers of Europe, meeting in Copenhagen signed up to a program to increase voluntary cooperation in vocational education and training (VET). The aim of this was to establish a basis for increasing mobility across Europe and facilitating access to lifelong learning through the promotion of mutual trust, transparency and recognition of competences and qualifications. The target is for the cooperation initiatives set out in the declaration to be implemented by 2010. Show less

The European Inventory on validation of non-formal and informal learning is a regularly updated overview of validation practises and arrangements across Europe. It is compiled in cooperation with the European Commission. The Inventory was endorsed by the Council Recommendation of 2012 on validation and works together with the European guidelines as a tool to support countries to develop and implement validation arrangements.

The inventory reports are a source of information to encourage more dialogue between the different stakeholders in developing and implementing validation in Europe. [The 'European inventory on validation of non-formal and informal learning: 2016 update: synthesis report'] is accompanied by 36 country reports and four thematic reports. [The authors'] key objective is to support Member States so that more learners and workers acquire and make visible new skills to support their career and further learning and to enhance their quality of life. The 2016 update of the Inventory provides a unique record on how validation is being used at national, regional and local level in Europe. It contains a state-of-play and overview of developments for 33 European countries since the 2014 update and is illustrated by good practise examples. [The] four thematic reports relating to key issues in the design and implementation of validation initiatives. The Inventory is the end result of a two-year process and is based on the work of a large network of national experts, extensive review of documents and interviews with key stakeholders.

Edited excerpts from publisher's website.

The 36 country reports are: Austria / Karin Luomi-Messerer; Belgium-Flanders / Katleen De Rick; Belgium-French / Cecile Mathou; Bulgaria / Mariya Dzhengozova; Croatia / Marija Pavkov; Cyprus / Anna Manoudi; Czech Republic / Lubos Valenta; Denmark / Kirsten Aagaard; Estonia / Marin Johnson; Finland / Anni Karttunen; France / Cecile Mathou; Germany / Claudia Ball; Greece / Anna Manoudi; Hungary / Eva Tot; Iceland / Fjola Maria Larusdottir and Ingibjorg E. Guomundsdottir; Ireland / Ilona Murphy; Italy / Elisabetta Perulli; Latvia / Agnese Rusakova; Liechtenstein / Bianca Faragau-Tavares; Lithuania / Giedre Beleckiene; Luxembourg / Bianca Faragau-Tavares; Malta / Ilona Murphy; Netherlands / Ruud Duvekot; Norway / Camilla Alfsen; Poland / Aleksandra Duda; Portugal / Paula Guimaraes; Romania / Magda Balica; Slovakia / Juraj Vantuch; Slovenia / Katarina Kosmrlj; Spain / Luis Carro; Sweden / Fredrik Sandberg; Switzerland / Deli Salini and Janine Voit; Turkey / Fusun Akkok; UK, England and Northern Ireland / Jo Hawley; UK - Scotland / David Scott; UK - Wales / Jo Hawley.

The four thematic reports are: Funding validation: a thematic report for the 2016 update to the European inventory on validation of non-formal and informal learning / Jo Hawley; Validation in the care and youth work sectors: thematic report for the 2016 update of the European inventory on validation / Karin Luomi-Messerer; Monitoring the use of validation of non-formal and informal learning: thematic report for the 2016 update of the European inventory on validation / Claire Duchemin; Validation and open educational resources (OER): thematic report for the 2016 update of the European inventory on validation / Axelle Devaux and Manuel Souto-Otero. Show less

Strengthening partnership and flexibility is important for modernising education in Europe. The present Staff working document is part of a larger policy initiative: it accompanies and offers analytical support to the Commission’s Communication on ‘Rethinking education: investing in skills for better socio-economic outcomes’. It is part of the European efforts to make lifelong learning a reality, and contributes to the objectives of Europe 2020. The findings presented build on analytical work carried out in cooperation with Member States and academic experts: (1) Cooperation and partnership increase flexibility and relevance of learning and improve efficient use of resources; (2) Effective partnerships and cooperation require strong and sustainable coordination structures and a shared vision among stakeholders; (3) Cooperation with social partners seems to work best where it is based on standing consultation mechanisms and sharing of responsibility between public and private actors; (4) Creating partnerships for funding can be effective, such as sectoral training funds based on social partner agreements; (5) Flexible pathways have an important potential for encouraging participation in lifelong learning as they allow individuals to build upon prior learning, and link competences and qualifications gained across different phases and contexts of life - leisure and working life, inside and outside formal education and training; (6) Such flexibility requires the removal of system-level barriers between different subsectors (e.g. restricted progression from VET to higher education); (7) This needs to be supported by the creation of structures that give easy access to integrated learning services; (8) Implementing strategies for groups of current non-learners require learner centred programmes and effective outreach strategies (notably approaching disadvantaged groups in their social environment) aimed at raising their awareness of the available offer and its benefits, and motivating them; (9) Close cooperation with the voluntary and community sector can be particularly crucial when it comes to attracting vulnerable and disadvantaged groups into learning and offering low-threshold and targeted support.

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Following the publication of ‘A memorandum of lifelong learning’ (indexed at TD/IRD 88.400) in October 2000, the European Commission invited Member States to launch a consultation process to collect together all views on how best to make progress in implementing lifelong learning. Feedback from the Europe-wide consultation was then used to develop the analysis and proposals in the Communication on ‘Making a European area of lifelong learning a reality’ (indexed at TD/IRD 88.264). National reports were submitted by each Member State as well as by candidate countries and Iceland and Norway. This document is the national report from Ireland. The contents are: Introduction; National context; Results from the consultation process; Recommendations to the Commission’s action plan.

Documents from ‘Making a European area of lifelong learning a reality’ are indexed from TD/TNC 77.521 to TD/TNC 77.539. Show less

As Europe goes through its green and digital transformations, high-quality vocational education and training (VET) is key to ensuring people have the right skills for the jobs of today and tomorrow. The Council Recommendation on VET for sustainable competitiveness, social fairness and resilience, adopted in November 2020, sets out the EU's comprehensive vision and strategic objectives for the future of VET. This publication outlines this vision and the importance of VET reforms at national level, including key principles and actions to support these reforms. It also looks at the EU initiatives leading the way and the assistance available to Member States in this area.

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