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Since 2008 Europe has been suffering the effects of the most severe economic crisis it has seen in 50 years: for the first time in Europe there are over 25 million unemployed and in the majority of Member States small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) have not yet been able to bounce back to their pre-crisis levels. To bring Europe back to growth and higher levels of employment, Europe needs more entrepreneurs. As a follow up to the Small Business Act review of April 2011 and of the Industrial policy communication adopted last October, the proposed action plan sets out a renewed vision and a number of actions to be taken at both [European Union] EU and Member States' level to support entrepreneurship in Europe. It is based on three pillars: developing entrepreneurial education and training; creating the right business environment; role models and reaching out to specific groups.

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In this paper, the author argues that the obsolescence of human capital, or the deterioration of the skills workers have acquired in the past, is central to the key challenge for western economies to achieve a knowledge-based society through lifelong learning. The first section outlines a typology of the various possible causes of human capital obsolescence, in which five different kinds of human capital obsolescence are identified: the wear of skills due to ageing, or illness that may be related to working conditions; the atrophy of skills due to insufficient use; job-specific obsolescence due to technological and organisational change; sector-specific obsolescence due to shifts in employment; and firm-specific skills obsolescence due to displacement. This is followed by a discussion of the different ways in which the obsolescence of human capital can be measured: (1) objective method: testing; (2) subjective method: asking workers or their employers; (3) workers' wages; and (4) the probability of losing their jobs. The next section reviews the evidence on skills obsolescence that exists in the literature. An example of some empirical indicators of the potential risks of human capital obsolescence for workers in the various sectors of industry in the Netherlands is presented. The discussion then moves to what kinds of learning or training activities could be remedies for the different kinds of human capital obsolescence and some empirical evidence on training participation in the various sectors of industry in the Netherlands is presented. Training participation in the various sectors of industry in relation to the specific potential risks of human capital obsolescence in each sector is discussed, with particular reference to older workers. The author concludes with some policy issues.

Selected papers from the conference are indexed from TD/TNC 87.81 to TD/TNC 87.84. Show less

In March 2018, following a consultation of cross-industry European social partners and an opinion of the tripartite Advisory Committee on Vocational Training (ACVT), EU Member States agreed on a Council Recommendation on a European Framework for Quality and Effective Apprenticeships (EFQEA). The framework aims to ensure that apprenticeships respond to the needs of both apprentices and employers throughout the European Union. The European Commission committed to report on the implementation of the framework within three years from the date of its adoption. This report presents the state of play of implementation of the Council Recommendation as of September 2020. The analysis is based on input provided in the 2nd half of 2020 and in early 2021 by all EU Member States, as well as European and national social partners and members of the European Alliance for Apprenticeships (EAfA). The analysis focuses in particular on how Member States have been putting in practice the 14 criteria for quality and effective apprenticeships set out in the EFQEA. It also describes further aspects related to the implementation at national level (involvement of social partners, gender equality, national reform programmes, use of EU funds). It presents how the European Commission supported Member States in the implementation and summarises remaining challenges. The Annex describes the key features of apprenticeships in each Member State.

Three years into the implementation of the recommendation, this report shows that the 7 criteria on learning and working conditions are in place in the majority of Member States, while further progress is needed in implementing the 7 criteria on framework conditions. The report confirms that the Framework continues to be relevant and up to date, and that it remains a key instrument to enhance the quality and effectiveness of apprenticeships across the EU. The report also indicates that the Framework supports Member States in an incremental, continuous improvement of their apprenticeship schemes, including on those criteria that were already partially in place in 2018.

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Currently, more than five million young people in the European Union (EU) are unemployed. It is becoming harder for young people to find work and some are deciding to either prolong their studies or going back to study. This could be a positive move for the future if the right skills are acquired. However, a large number of young people are neither working nor studying. The European Commission is proposing a Youth Opportunities Initiative to target those young people not in employment, education or training. Although most of the work will need to be done by the Member States, the EU can provide a supporting role through review of policies and performance and by providing financial support to national and cross-border initiatives. This report outlines the initiative's first steps in supporting skills development and school-to-work transitions. Show less

It has been well documented in research that students from so-called 'non-traditional' backgrounds can experience significant difficulty in accessing higher education, in part due to a lack of cultural capital. This is further reinforced by 'invisible pedagogic practices' such as 'critical analysis', 'structure' and 'argument', which uphold the prestige of disciplines without adequately inducting students into such practices. Through the evaluation of an academic literacy intervention ('ARC') designed to improve the academic resilience and confidence of students on an undergraduate degree programme, this paper demonstrates that 'literacy' is as much a social practice as it is a set of applied skills. Thus, 'academic literacy' should constitute both study skills and academic socialisation. This paper further argues that the acquisition of 'academic literacy' necessitates the adoption of an 'academic identity', which is an emotional as well as an intellectual endeavour. This requires institutions to move away from the deficit model of 'academic literacy support' towards models which enable the construction of a shared academic identity and cultivate a sense of belonging to the university environment.

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This publication contains a number of documents from European social partners on the Commission’s ‘Memorandum on lifelong learning’ (indexed at TD/IRD 88.400). In ‘Opinion on the Commission Memorandum on Lifelong Learning’, the European Centre of Enterprises with Public Participation and of Enterprises of General Economic Interest (CEEP) provides comments and suggests proposals on the six key messages in the Memorandum and says that the main challenge, in view of an ageing population and the aim to develop a knowledge-based economy and society, is to involve all players in developing lifelong learning i.e. the authorities, undertakings, social partners, training bodies and citizens. In ‘Resolution adopted by the ETUC Executive Committee - 13-14 June 2001, Brussels - on the Commission Memorandum on Lifelong Learning’, the European Trade Union Confederation highlights the challenge for Europe in achieving lifelong learning for all and the need to establish appropriate structural conditions such as: the rights of individuals to have access to lifelong learning; increased investment in human resources; recognising that learning and training require time; recognising the results of learning; creating conditions favourable to learning in the workplace; the need for strong partnerships between all actors concerned; and innovation in teaching and training methods and the role of teachers and trainers. In ‘UEAPME position paper on the Commission Memorandum on Lifelong Learning’ from the European Association of Craft, Small and Medium-sized Enterprises, the focus is on the need for new and developed skills to meet the future needs of small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) and the need for the SME sector to be more involved in the development of initial education and training. In ‘UNICE position paper on the Commission Memorandum on Lifelong Learning’, the Union of Industrial and Employers’ Confederation of Europe says that the envisaged strategy of the Memorandum should be based on the following principles: develop a learning culture that reduces barriers to lifelong learning and promotes new basic skills; develop national systems to take up the challenges from lifelong learning; give a comprehensive view of resources used for lifelong learning systems in education and training, and in learning at the work place; and underline the necessity for the individual to take up responsibility for lifelong learning. It also provides detailed comments on the six key messages.

Documents from ‘Making a European area of lifelong learning a reality’ are indexed from TD/TNC 77.521 to TD/TNC 77.539. Show less

This report presents the findings of the joint Australia-Europe working group on a comparative analysis of the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) and the European Qualifications Framework (EQF). This activity occurred in the context of the longstanding education and training policy dialogue between the European Union (EU) and Australia, where an enhanced relationship between the AQF and the EQF has been an important theme. The Group carried out its activities in 2014 and 2015, further to an agreement from early 2014 to compare the characteristics of the EQF as a regional framework for European countries and the AQF as a national framework.

The purpose of this joint activity is to analyse and document the technical and conceptual characteristics of the respective frameworks in their operational contexts, and systematically identify key elements of their comparability, similarities and differences, in a mutually beneficial way. The comparison of the AQF and EQF will create a 'zone of mutual trust', leading to a better functional understanding and appreciation of AQF qualifications and respective learning outcomes in Europe, and a better understanding of the EQF in Australia, and the respective European national qualifications frameworks (NQFs) that are referenced to it. By broadening and deepening the functional knowledge and understanding of respective frameworks, transparency in the frameworks can be further elevated which, in turn, can enhance opportunities for future cooperation between Australia and Europe.

The intended audience for this report is policy makers in Australia, Europe and beyond who wish to gain further understanding of the commonalities and differences between the AQF and EQF. Equally, it is intended that the report be used as a resource to inform policy decision-making for future education and training cooperation and engagement, particularly in key policy areas of strategic importance to Australia and Europe, some of which have been identified during the process of collaboration in this joint activity.

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This report is intended to provide the basis for debate about the development of a learning society and about ongoing reforms to the vocational training systems among member states of the European Union. Its further intention is to stimulate action to enhance access to training programmes in European economies. The report comprises an analysis of existing programmes and initiatives, an examination of further steps that need to be taken and a set of conclusions, guidelines and objectives. Show less

This Communique, which follows the Copenhagen Declaration (2002) and Maastricht Communique (2004) sets the priorities and strategies for the European cooperation in vocational education and training [VET] for the next two years. The Communique is based on the Council Conclusions adopted on 14 November 2006 and the background document prepared by the Finnish Presidency. Its aim is to communicate European policy strategies in the area to all stakeholders, including VET providers/institutions, teachers, trainers and learners.

The Communique has four parts: (1) Europe needs investments in VET - this part addresses the challenges for the European VET policies; (2) Making it happen - The Copenhagen process delivering reforms - this part describes the role of the Copenhagen process in responding to the European challenges and outlines the main strategies for continuations of the process; (3) Reviewed priorities - this part describes the four priorities for the next period; and (4) Implementation and reporting - guidelines for the implementation.

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This report responds to the challenges associated with the provision of language skills for the European labour market. It calls for a sharpened focus on employment-related aspects of language learning. The aim is to provide input for the current discussions at national and European levels on modernising education systems and quality assurance built on learning outcomes. The main challenge is for language teaching to become learner-focused, and better geared to professional contexts and the needs of the jobs market. This, in turn, will improve learner motivation and the successful taking up and use of available opportunities. This will benefit not only learners but those seeking to employ people who are well-trained and properly qualified to assume their professional responsibilities.

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