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One of the recurrent explanations of the Arab spring is that governments were disconnected from their populations and that public policies were simply not in line with people's sentiments and expectations. This paper provides a methodology to better understand how objective conditions of deprivation are translated into subjective feelings of deprivation using a strand of the recent literature on relative deprivation. The authors apply this methodology to better understand the question of gender and youth deprivation in the context of the Moroccan labor market. They find that the reference group (the people with whom people compare themselves) plays a pivotal role in understanding how feelings of labor deprivation are generated. This can explain the apparent mismatch between objective conditions and subjective feelings of deprivation related to joblessness among young men and women. The methodology can help us understand why greater discontent may be exhibited by a group of individuals who are in fact less deprived in a material sense. It can also potentially help governments design public policies that address objective conditions of deprivation, such as unemployment, with a better understanding of subjective implications.

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For economies, enterprises and workers across Africa, the [Coronavirus Disease 2019] COVID-19 pandemic has brought about unprecedented changes to the workplace. Some of these changes have been immediate, such as disruptions to supply chains or lockdowns that forced enterprises to close. Other changes - and perhaps the more significant ones - are long-term, with the COVID-19 pandemic reshaping and accelerating existing trends in workplace change. At its core, the pandemic has fundamentally altered where and how people work, upending many long-standing norms and practices. Enterprises and workers have made many changes, often out of necessity, though they have regularly brought unexpected improvements in productivity or working conditions.

This report documents these changes and examines how enterprises from across Africa view and respond to them. It has been developed with support from the Bureau for Employers Activities of the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the ILO Regional Office for Africa, in partnership with employer and business membership organizations (EBMOs) from across Africa. The research covers fifteen countries in Africa, and takes a mixed-methods approach. One component is a survey conducted from June to November 2021 covering 1,017 formal sector enterprises, most of whom are members of EBMOs. Collectively, they employ some 750,000 workers. This is complemented by a broad-based literature review and 126 key informant interviews, mostly with top management and human resources professionals from the private sector. In addition, we conducted five in-depth case studies with multinational enterprises, each having operations in at least five African countries. While these various sources of information do not cover all parts of every economy in Africa, they provide deep and broad insights about how workplaces at urban, formal enterprises in Africa are changing.

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Purpose - This paper aims to explore the position of Arab women in management by examining the existing research on gender and management in the Arab region in order to obtain an overall picture of the advancement of Arab women in their professional lives, point out coherent clusters of research and identify knowledge gaps in existing research. Design/methodology/approach - The study conducts a content analysis of academic articles in order to provide a quantitative as well as qualitative thematic overview of the topics [that] emerged from the literature. Findings - The statistical analysis of researches shows that, the topic of women in management is gaining more importance. The thematic overview of researches shows that authors have concentrated only on few and very broad topics, without much diversity or depth. Practical implications - The paper provides practitioners some understanding of the position of Arab women in management and factors that influence their professional lives. The paper sets a solid base of previous studies for future researchers studying women in management in the Arab region. Originality/value - The paper might be considered as the first study to give a systematic overview of the literature on women in management in the Arab region.

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At a moment when many countries of the [Middle East and North Africa] MENA region are looking to accelerate economic growth and build more stable, open societies, this report argues that greater women's economic empowerment holds one of the keys. The report, a joint effort of the OECD, the Centre of Arab Women for Training and Research (CAWTAR) and the ILO, asserts that despite challenges some countries are facing in guaranteeing women equal access to economic opportunity, progress is underway and can be further nurtured through targeted, inclusive and coordinated policy actions. The report analyses recent legislative, policy and institutional reforms in support of women's economic empowerment in Egypt, Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia and seeks to identify success factors that have helped anchor reform. Moreover, it delivers actionable examples and practical tools for policy makers to help them transform policies into effective actions for women's economic empowerment.

The report reveals that change is underway across the region, with progress being made in education, equality in work, work-life balance, vulnerable women (domestic workers, rural women and women refugees), women as entrepreneurs, and women as leaders. Despite this progress, female labour force participation in the four countries remains the lowest in the world. Restrictive and discriminatory social norms continue to hold back women's economic empowerment and condone violence against women. The report presents 24 detailed case studies of recent legislative, policy and institutional reforms to support women's economic empowerment in Egypt, Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia. The report draws out some of the common factors behind the success of these reforms and their implementation, and makes a range of detailed recommendations.

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The two key constraints on employment in the Mediterranean partner countries (MPCs) are insufficient labour demand (in particular for qualified labour), i.e. a lack of job creation, and skills mismatches as a result of failures in the education system that have contributed to a low level of employability. This report focuses on the problems of employability, and more specifically on youth and female employment and employability. This is arguably one of the main social, economic and even political challenges that the MPCs will face over the next 10 years, particularly in view of their extremely young populations. There is no synthesised indicator of employability. The relevant variables for such an indicator would combine performance indicators (time spent searching for a job; quality of the job found in terms of wages, working conditions and match with skills) and process indicators (skills and qualifications, professional experience, training periods/actions). However, employability is defined here as 'the combination of factors which enable individuals to progress towards getting into employment, staying in employment and progressing during their career' (Cedefop, 2008). It is a complex concept and a transversal issue encompassing all initial education and knowledge, skills, experience and intercultural competences required to succeed in the labour market. It depends on many different factors: human capital and education and training, as well as socioeconomic and personal factors, macroeconomic perspectives and labour demand (employability is a context-bound concept), and the institutional determinants of the job search and matching process. All these factors will be analysed throughout the report.

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This publication contains the proceedings of the Arab Regional Conference on Higher Education (ARCHE+10) held in Cairo between 31 May-2 June 2009. ARCHE+10 was attended by delegates from Ministries of Higher Education in the Arab States. A regional report was compiled, describing the state and achievements of higher education in the region over a decade, as well as present and future challenges confronting the sector. Papers covered ARCHE+10's five themes: (1) learning opportunities; (2) quality improvement and quality assurance; (3) the social responsibility of universities; (4) management, governance and funding; and (5) Arab cooperation. Contributions include fully-fledged research papers, descriptive papers, and analyses and reviews of promising ideas. This diversity was retained as it provides a wider picture of the state of higher education in the Arab States.

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The contributions are: A decade of higher education in the Arab states (1998-2009): achievements and challenges (regional report); Cairo Declaration on Higher Education in the Arab States. Theme: 'Educational opportunity and students' mobility' - Admission policies and procedures in Arab universities / Rafica Hammoud; On building an academic space for the Arab region: the possible, the probable and the hoped for / Abdel W. Ben Hafaiedh; The contribution of private universities in higher education equity in Kuwait / Imad M. Al-Atiqi, Asad A. Al-Rashed, Farida M. Ali; Where are all the men?: gender, participation and higher education in the United Arab Emirates / Fatma Abdulla and Natasha Ridge; Undergraduate admissions, equity of access and quality in higher education: an international comparative perspective / Kamal Abouchedid; Access, equity and competitiveness: the case of higher education in Egypt / Mona El Baradei; Identifying potential stressors of university students and ways to enhance university climate: the case of the University of Balamand / Nayla N. El Koussa, Laurie L. Williamson, Elie Menessa. Theme: 'Quality of education: curricula' - Implementing the LMD [a higher education structure based on the Bologna process] system: experience of the philosophy department in the Cadi Ayyad University in Marakkech / Dardari Altihami; Higher education curricula in Algeria: indicators of fragility and means of improving their quality: the case of psychology, education and orthophony / Awashriya Asaid; Assessment of the post-graduate program at the Faculty of Mass Communication: case study / Abdel Rahman M. S. Al-Shami; Teacher preparation: issues and trends in international and Arab frameworks / Mohamed B. Sukariyah; The LMD higher education system in the Maghreb countries: the example of Algeria / Meziane Mohammed, Mahi Brahim; Support for distance language learners at the Syrian Virtual University / Hala Dalbani. Theme: 'Quality of education: faculty staff' - Culture shock or shocking culture: an exploration of the main obstacles encountering Syrian newly returned academic staff from abroad / Rami M. Ayoubi, Hiba K. Massoud, Hanan A. Al-Maghout; Career path of higher education teaching personnel in the Arab States and the quality challenges / Ramzi Salame; Engaging academics in quality conversations: a bottom-up approach to improving teaching and learning in higher education institutions / Raoudha Ben Othman; Le laboratoire de pedagogie universitaire de l'Universite Saint-Joseph de Beyrouth / Nada Moghaizel-Nasr. Theme: 'Quality assurance, quality evaluation and management' - Total Quality Management in public and private Jordanian universities: a comparative study / Aieman Ahmad Al-Omari; Quality assurance and a Bologna-type process in the Arab world / Hossain Zand and Omaima Karrar; Licensing and supervision of private higher education institutions in the Arab States / Abdel Bagi A.G. Babiker; L'evaluation dans le systeme d'enseignement superieur au Maroc: Bilan des realisations, limites et principaux defis / Abdelali Kaaouachi; The role and function of institutional research in institutions of higher education: theory and practice / Karma El Hassan; Quality assurance review in Arab countries / Labib Arafeh; The impact of reform projects in higher education: the case of Egypt / Mohsen Elmahdy Said; Education faculty of Qatar University: implementing the quality assurance system (case study) / Mohammed F. Habib, Ahmed K. Mahdy, Batoul M. Khalifa, Ahmad J. Al Saa'i, Huda I. Bachir; The participatory approach in the reform of academic curricula: case study of the Faculty of Dentistry at Damascus University, Syria / Mohamad Kayyal and Mayssoon Dashash. Theme: 'Research' - The status of social scientific research in Lebanon in a 'globalized' context: attempt to understand its components, conditions and limitations / Jacques Kabanji; Globalization of applied scientific research and development requirements / Rafic Younis; The social sciences research in the Arab east: dilemmas of the research centres outside of the university / Sari Hanafi; Impact of crises on scientific and research activities of faculty members: a comparative study (Iraq and Jordan) / Sawsan Shakir Majeed. Theme: 'Societal responsibility' - Academic partnerships: the driving force behind social and pedagogical development (case of Mohammed V University at Souissi) / Ahmed Ouzi; L'engagement social des etudiants universitaires: experience de l'Universite Saint-Joseph de Beyrouth / Georges Aoun; Beyond the walls: The American University of Beirut engages its communities / Cynthia Myntti, Rami Zurayk, Mounir Mabsout; Applying an interdisciplinary model for promoting the study of humanities and social sciences: the case of Zayed University (UAE) / Sabrina Joseph; Les universitaires touareg, vers la normalisation des institutions traditionnelles ou leur reforme? / Meriem Bouzid-Sababou; Meeting the requirements of the modern times through development of interdisciplinary programs in social science: the experience of the Masters Program in Democracy and Human Rights at Birzeit University / Mudar Kassis; The Lebanese University and the issue of social integration: an analytical survey study / Moadad Rahal; Private universities in Egypt: are they venues for democratic attitudes and behavior? / Nadine Sika; Ahfad University for Women - beyond academic excellence: social responsibility and civic engagement / Widad Ali Rahman and Shahira Osama. Theme: 'Dossier: higher education in Saudi Arabia' - Experience of scholarships to foreign universities in Saudi Arabia: a model for investment in human resources and their contribution to development / Abdullah Bin Abdul-Aziz Al-Mousa; Development of student admission criteria in Saudi universities: the experience of the National Center for Assessment in Higher Education / Faisal Bin Abdullah Mashary Al Saud; Higher education in Saudi Arabia 1998-2008: towards building a knowledge society / Mohammad Ben Abdelaziz Al Ohali, Abdel Mohsen Ben Salem Al Aqili; Higher education for girls in Saudi Arabia and its relevance to the labor market / Mohammed Ben Mojab Al-Hamid, Fatmah Bent Backer Jamjoom; Quality improvement and quality assurance in Saudi private higher education institutions / Walid Abdul Razak Al Dali and Omar M. Al-Rayes. Show less

A decade since the spark of the Arab Spring, the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region continues to suffer from limited creation of more and better jobs. Youth face idleness and unemployment. For those who find jobs, informality awaits. Few women attempt to enter the world of work at all. Meanwhile, the available jobs are not those of the future. These labor market outcomes are being worsened by the [Coronavirus Disease 2019] COVID-19 pandemic. This report explores ways to break these impasses, drawing on original research, survey data, wide-ranging literature, and young entrepreneurial voices from the region.

The report finds that a prominent reason behind MENA's unmet jobs challenge is a lack of market contestability in the formal private sector. Few firms in the region enter the market, few grow, and those that exit are not necessarily less productive. Moreover, firms in the region invest little in physical capital, human capital, or research and development, and they tend to be politically connected. At the macro level, economic growth has been mediocre, labor productivity is not being driven by structural change, and the growth of the stock of capital per capita has declined. New evidence generated for this report shows that the lack of dynamism is due to the prevalence of state-owned enterprises (SOEs). They operate in sectors where there is little economic rationale for public activity and they enjoy favorable treatment - flouting the principles of competitive neutrality. Meanwhile, labor regulations add to market rigidity, while gendered laws restrict women's potential.

To change this reality, the state must reshape its relationship toward markets, toward workers, and toward women. The region must create a level playing field between SOEs and the private sector, replace labor rigidities with appropriate social protection and labor market programs, and remove barriers to women's economic participation. Governments can also foster new sectors and occupations, gradually propelling market contestability and job creation. All reforms will have to rely on improved data capacity and transparency to create a new social contract between governments and the people of the region.

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This document provides a cross-country analysis of the current situation in relation to [vocational education and training] VET governance in the nine countries in the [southern and eastern Mediterranean] SEMED region that are participating in the [European Training Foundation's] ETF's [Governance for Employability in the Mediterranean] GEMM project. It presents a clear review of the challenges that these countries are facing as they seek to improve VET outcomes through better management and partnership at the national and local levels.

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The report analyses overall trends in gender mainstreaming policies in education and employment in the European Union (EU) Member States and provides a general overview of the situation in Turkey, Jordan and Morocco. The papers provide an overview of the situation in these countries, and may be useful for potential donors in focusing on gender mainstreaming policies in future assistance programs and projects. The chapters are as follows: Gender mainstreaming in education and employment in the European Union; Gender mainstreaming in education and employment in three international organisations (The International Labour Organization; UNESCO; The World Bank); Gender mainstreaming policies in education and employment in Jordan, Morocco and Turkey; General conclusions. Show less

Female labor participation in the Arab world is low compared with the level of economic development of Arab countries. Beyond anecdotal evidence and cross-country studies, there is little evidence on what could explain this phenomenon. This paper uses panel data to model female labor participation in Morocco. The paper finds marriage, household inactivity rates, secondary education, and gross domestic product per capita to lower female labor participation rates. It also finds that the category urban educated women with secondary education explains better than others the low level of female labor participation. These findings are robust to different estimators, endogeneity tests, different specifications of the female labor participation equations, and different sources of data. The findings are also consistent with previous studies on the Middle East and North Africa region and on Morocco. The explanation seems to reside in the nature of economic growth and gender norms. Economic growth has not been labor intensive, has generated few jobs, and has not been in female-friendly sectors, resulting in weak demand for women, especially urban educated women with secondary education. And when men and women compete for scarce jobs, men may have priority access because of employers' and households' preferences.

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