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This brief explores new challenges and opportunities that are emerging amid the prolonged, partial, or full university closures in Sri Lanka due to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. It summarizes the findings from the second online higher education survey conducted by the Asian Development Bank in November-December 2021 to better understand the progress, persistent challenges, and perceptions of different stakeholders. It provides an update on user experiences in online higher education in the country. The first online higher education survey was conducted in June 2020.

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This paper examines drivers of rural vulnerability and how the challenge of rural vulnerability can be addressed by promoting socio-economic empowerment, enhancing socio-economic inclusion and building resilience of the most vulnerable, disadvantaged and marginalized populations in order to promote employment and Decent Work in rural economies. It puts emphasis on the need to identify who are the vulnerable groups in the rural economy, what challenges they face and the risks they are exposed to, and how vulnerability affects Decent Work opportunities and conditions in the rural economy. The document takes as source of analysis country cases that have experienced different risks or threats and highlights different ILO's approaches and tools that have been applied to tackle them.

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This study is motivated by the recognition that increasing women's access to employment is necessary to increase human capital and capabilities within households. It is also acknowledged that Sri Lanka's economic growth prospects in the future will be heavily dependent on a greater number of women engaging in market work. The study seeks to inform policy-making aimed at encouraging women to join the work force, and does so by reviewing the literature and drawing on a background study of the views of stakeholders to investigate the factors associated with the probability of women's participation in the work force.

In particular, the study looks at the extent to which differences in individual characteristics, household characteristics and socio-economic class, and familial responsibilities were associated with whether women work for pay or not. It also adds to the econometric literature on women's labour force participation in Sri Lanka by looking at the impact of employment and unemployment outcomes in discouraging participation. As far as we are aware, this is the first time that this issue has been looked at in Sri Lanka in the context of a representative sample survey. The econometric analysis also decomposes likelihood of participation into contributing factors, in order to inform the process of prioritizing and targeting policies.

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This study employs a pseudo-panel approach to estimate the returns to education among income earners in Sri Lanka. Pseudo-panel data are constructed from nine repeated cross sections of Sri Lanka's Labor Force Survey data from 1997 to 2008, for workers born during 1953-1974. The results show that for males, one extra year of education increases monthly earnings by about 5 per cent using the pseudo-panel estimation rather than 9 per cent as in the ordinary least-squares (OLS) estimation. This indicates that not controlling for unobservables such as ability and motivation biases the OLS estimation of returns upwards by about 4 per cent on average, driven mainly by what happens in urban areas. It also suggests that males with higher ability seem to be acquiring more years of education. This is contrary to what has been observed recently in countries such as Thailand [Warunsiri, S., and R. McNown. 2010. 'The Return to Education in Thailand: A Pseudo-Panel Approach'. World Development 38 (1): 1616-1625], where the opportunity cost of education seems to be high, such that high-ability individuals leave education for the labour market.

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Youth employability and green skills are at the core of UNESCO-UNEVOC's activities. This is why UNESCO-UNEVOC has been collecting 'promising practices' in technical and vocational education and training (TVET) from UNEVOC Network members. These promising practices illustrate how UNEVOC Network members from around the world are using technical and vocational skills to address two major global challenges that are affecting every country in the world, and are therefore high up on the post-2015 development agenda: making youth employable and achieving sustainable development. All UNEVOC Network members were invited to showcase how TVET is being oriented to the demands of greening the economy and addressing youth unemployment at the level of their school or institution, their region or their country. The aim of this exercise was to share knowledge of established innovative practices – 'success stories' – that have proven to be effective and that promote TVET in some profound way, either within a particular TVET sub-sector or at local, regional or national level. The submissions were reviewed in terms of their impact, innovation and potential for replication using a conceptual framework specifically developed for identifying and analysing promising practices. Some of the most promising, interesting and inspiring practices on each of the two themes – green skills and youth employment – are published in this booklet.

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This paper focuses on how the forces of globalisation, specifically the Multi-Fibre Arrangement (MFA), have affected women's wages in the apparel sector in developing countries. Using household and labour force surveys from Cambodia and Sri Lanka, we find large positive wage premiums and a closing of the male-female wage gap during the MFA period, but smaller premiums and a widening wage gap after the end of the MFA. Our results suggest that apparel exports continued to benefit women in developing countries post-MFA.

Published abstract reprinted by permission of the copyright owner.

The authors' earlier work on this topic, 'Globalization and the gender earnings gap: evidence from Sri Lanka and Cambodia', World Bank policy research working paper no. 7930, was published in 2016. It is available in VOCEDplus at TD/TNC 127.360. Show less

The ILO project 'Analysis of youth employment policy and dissemination through global databases and publications (component for Asia and the Pacific)' operated through 2013-2014. Its objectives were to review youth employment policies, share policy learning, and improve formulation and implementation of youth employment policies. In 2014, the project reviewed policies and legislation affecting youth employment in 11 countries in Asia and the Pacific through a database called YouthPOL. The countries included were Cambodia, China, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mongolia, Nepal, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and Vanuatu. This paper explores the results of the policy analysis.

It begins with an overview of the youth employment context and policy challenges in the region and presents the ILO's policy framework for youth employment as laid out in the 2012 resolution, 'The youth employment crisis: [time] for action'. The paper continues with a short section on research and methodology and an overview of findings by sub-region and income level. This is followed by a detailed examination of the different youth employment policy measures in place across five policy areas: (1) macroeconomic and sectoral policy; (2) education and training; (3) labour market policies; (4) enterprise development; and (5) rights at work. Next, there is a summary of the features of the policy process and the paper ends with concluding observations. The aims of the analysis is to serve as a policy learning exercise, providing ideas to promote decent work opportunities for young people.

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This book presents an overview of the main research findings and case studies concerning education and skills for inclusive growth, green jobs and the greening of economies. Focusing on India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam, it discusses government and business sector responses to these issues and how technical and vocational education and training (TVET) systems and institutions are addressing both the renewal of curricula in the context of green growth dynamics, and patterns of training and skills development to meet demands. In addition, the book examines cross-country issues, concerns and prospects regarding education and skills for inclusive growth and green jobs for the four countries. These include critical themes and issues in the selected industry sectors triggering a demand for green jobs in the region; how industry is responding to those demands; areas impeding the transition from traditional to green practices; the importance of skills development; the role of TVET in addressing industry needs; and reasons for the slow response of TVET to green skills.

While other studies conducted in Asia - and internationally - on the same topic have largely relied on secondary sources, this study conducted by the Asian Development Bank and the Education University of Hong Kong (ADB-EdUHK) is unique in that the findings, conclusions and recommendations reported on are based on primary data. As part of the study, TVET providers, business enterprises, policy makers and practitioners were surveyed using questionnaires and face-to-face interviews. In addition, workshops were held in each of the four countries to ascertain the views of key stakeholders in government, nongovernment organisations, members of the international development community, TVET providers and members of the business sector.

Edited abstract from Asian Development Bank website.

The chapters are as follows: Overview; Introduction; Summary of main research findings: India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Viet Nam; Case study of a private sector firm in Indonesia; A holistic approach to greening TVET: a case study and analysis of Bac Thang Long Economic Technical College practices in Viet Nam; Summary, conclusions, and prospects. The following information is included as appendices: list of generic green skills; project background and introduction, approach, and methodology; employers' survey instrument; TVET providers' survey instrument; employers' interview protocol; TVET providers' interview protocol. Show less

The construction of meaningfulness at work impacts on individual, psychological and work-related outcomes. The meaningfulness of work, however, in the context of women leaders working in higher education institutions (HEIs), has not yet been comprehensively researched and understood in South Africa and internationally. This article explores the perspectives on meaningfulness of work for women leaders working in HEIs in South Africa and internationally. With regard to meaningfulness at work, limited research exists on HEIs in South Africa and internationally. This needs to be explored in-depth from emic female perspectives to contribute both to the benefit of women working in HEIs and to the transformation goals of organisations. The data from a qualitative research study within the phenomenological paradigm are presented. The research methods included the collection and analysis of 29 in-depth interviews with South African and international women leaders working in academic and administrative positions in HEIs. The findings showed that women leaders in HEIs connect meaningfulness to five main categories, namely, career, life values, spirituality, race and gender identity. HEIs need to focus more on the construction of meaningfulness at work for women leaders so as to provide empowering working conditions. This article contributes to the limited literature on meaningfulness at work for women leaders within HEIs. It also provides conclusions and recommendations.

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This paper outlines some of the key challenges and opportunities regarding skills development for youth with disabilities. It focuses on those who are no longer in formal education, but who, for a variety of reasons, are not yet in formal employment. Where possible, it outlines the extent of labour force participation amongst youth living with disabilities, and discusses the barriers to participation. In order to highlight these challenges and opportunities, the paper explores the situation in four low- and middle-income countries to better understand how economic growth, or lack thereof, impacts on youth employment. The four countries selected – China, Sri Lanka, Kenya and Sierra Leone – all experience high youth unemployment rates (in line with many countries across the world) but for a variety of different reasons. All four countries have also made attempts to redress the inequities experienced by persons with disabilities, but as yet it is unclear the extent to which youth with disabilities have been impacted by these initiatives. This report examines what opportunities are available to youth with disabilities specifically, and how effective are they in facilitating social inclusion and creating sustainable employment. Using case studies to illustrate successful targeted programmes, the paper also draws together information on key policies and practices that appear to be significant components in facilitating social inclusion and creating sustainable employment opportunities.

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